Ebay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ebay - Essay Example Their CEO has also described eBay as one of the leaders in the consumer-driven goal to ensure that e-commerce is faster and more convenient for the users. They have managed to capitalize on this trend in the knowledge that most people have easy access to the internet through their smartphones which allows them to shop and pay anywhere and anytime (Sage, 2010). Technology is shaping e-commerce and changing the behavior of consumers. These changes are giving new worldwide opportunities for eBay and are driving the next generation of e-commerce users (Sage, 2010). There is an expected change in mobile transactions with almost double their numbers from the inception of PayPal. It is estimated that the mobile industry is set to increase to $4 billion in gross merchandise in the next year (Sage, 2010). eBay was a leader in the internet boom, however, it has since met with major competition from businesses which already offered online options for their products. However, eBay now highlights PayPal’s role in making improvements in its company transactions and in stabilizing marketplaces linking in well with all consumers (Sage, 2010). PayPal is utilized by about 59 percent of the major inline merchants in the US and up to 40 percent in the UK (Sage, 2010). Their revenue is expected to reach $6-7 billion by the end of 2013, representing a growth of about 76 to 105 percent. PayPal revenues also rose by 23 percent from 2009 to 2010 (Sage, 2010). The payments set off on two areas – from the buyers and the sellers; and the number of sellers is set to increase by the year 2013 – almost double the current PayPal traders. The company has become highly aware that mobile products and services can evolve and can actually add value to the company and the best thing for the company to do is to improve the consumer’s execution of its transactions (Sage, 2010). eBay investors are very much concerned about seeing the stability and growth of the company mark etplace. It is important to note however that they are still lagging behind Amazon.com which is still the leader in e-commerce. eBay has managed to increase the trust and safety of its site while also trying to update its e-commerce experts in reference to its outdated search technology (Sage, 2010). Most of their online buyers have now fixed-prices for their products and the company has tried to increase the mobile applications of their products. Consequently, the consumers have been able to use scan technology in order to compare prices on their smartphones while scanning the internet market (Sage, 2010). These improvements have managed to strengthen the company and improve consumer confidence – helping them improve their profits in the past few years. Despite these improvements, issues in the market and in the general economy have kept eBay shares at half their value of their largest gain in 2004 (Sage, 2010). eBay is still valued below other web-based companies at 16.7 ti mes based on 2010 earnings. Google and Yahoo, on the other hand have been valued at 18 and 21.6 times in earnings respectively (Sage, 2010). Social networking has also been considered as one of the major driving factors of eBay. Facebook and other social networking sites have created a market for many consumers and many sellers (Duryee, 2011). Social networking has fast replaced mobile access in its thrust toward consumerism. And still this trend will again see more changes in the next few years. Nevertheless, the point has been

The Power of Selfishness Essay Example for Free

The Power of Selfishness Essay Literature overflows with references and symbols that correlate to teachings of many different subjects. Many authors design characters who, for some unknown reason, feel they cannot control their own selfish motives. The system of egoism defines itself as the ethical system that places needs of oneself above and before those of others. Incorporated into this system, the more explicit views of the psychological egoist arise. The psychological egoist firmly believes that he holds no power over his selfish motives; humans innately strive to maintain what proves best for themselves over any others needs. This situation becomes evident in Shakespeares Macbeth as Macbeth allows his vaulting ambition to overpower his best judgment. While Macbeths questions his actions towards the beginning of the play, his true character surfaces as we see the transformation from a discerning war hero to a monstrous, uncontrollable murderer. Because Shakespeare chooses to slowly reveal Macbeths faults, the reader initially falls into the perception of Macbeths nobility and control over his own desires. The reader first meets Macbeth as he rides in from a successful battle in which he decimated Scotlands foe led by Macdonwald. Like the reader, Macbeths peers also trust his courage in valor for brave Macbeth- well he deserves that name-/ Disdaining fortune, with his brandished steel, / Which smoked with bloody execution, / Like valors minion carved out his passage/ Till he faced the slave(I.ii.16-20). Even the king resounds Macbeth as a valiant cousin, worthy gentleman, a gesture that portrays trickles of irony, as this valiant cousin would soon become his gruesome murderer. These bold and proud portrayals of Macbeth are implemented to confuse the reader, to skew his belief in Macbeths ability to kill a friend, to hide Macbeths uncontrollable secret desire to assume the throne of Scotland. Shakespeare quickly reveals Macbeths ambition for the throne as he portrays an inquisitive Macbeth, careful not to promulgate his excitement for the three witches prophesy. Macbeth snaps to the hags, Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more! / Speak I charge you (I.iii.70-78). The quick reaction to the witches prophesy of his kingship flags the reader to notice Macbeths instantaneous and uncontrollable interest in the prospect of overthrowing Duncan. The uncontrollable urge for self-advancement over others well being closely follows the Catholic Social Teaching of the psychological egoists inextinguishable desire to trump the success of others and attain fame and glory. Thinking through the requirements and consequences of his kingship, Macbeth slowly settles away from the idea of murdering the honorable Duncan, a withdrawal which sets the reader astray from the prospect of Macbeths desire to advance at any cost. As he arrives back to his castle, Lady Macbeth meets him with a rampant frenzy, questions him about what it will take to propel her to the position of queen, and implores him to consider the simple murder of Duncan to grasp her such happiness as well as seal their marriages happiness. Like Macbeth, Lady Macbeth keeps captive the same uncontrollable desire that defines a psychological egoist; however, she chooses to play into Macbeths fears and emotions to achieve her goal rather than following through herself. Lady Macbeth and Macbeth clearly know what they want and submit to any means necessary in order to achieve their goal. They plan to greet Duncan as he arrives at Macbeths castle [looking] like the time, [bearing] welcome in [their] eyes, / [their] hands, [their] tongue. Look like the innocent flower, / but be the serpent under it(I.v.64-66). The now assured murder of Duncan slowly assimilates into a passionate war to achieve their desires at cost to any others, even Lady Macbeths desires trump those of her husband in her mind. The selfish mood throughout the play seems to give warning to not only selfish ideas and selfish motives, but to societys ability as a whole to quell these undying desires, to allow these dangerous ideas to subside, and to realize the need for intervention long before ones ambition grows to large to control. Egoism has been widely criticized as subverting attempts to live together as a whole, a criticism which further magnifies the potency of danger that Macbeths ambitions hold. Macbeths ability to act upon his ambition remained unclear for a large part of the play; however, once he committed the initial murder of Duncan, Macbeths will to remove anything that threatened his success became clear; his willingness to kill further emboldened the correlation of him as an egoist. Quickly becoming suspicious of the beliefs of those around him, Macbeth moves to kill Banquo, his closest friend and ally until this point. As Banquo clearly dictates his unwillingness to support Macbeth in his nefarious deeds, Macbeth decides to call upon a group of murders to remove the threat of not only Banquo, but of his son Fleance, who was prophesized to be king. In fact, Macbeth believes every minute of [Banquos] being thrusts/ Against [his] nearest of life (III.i.118-119). The small statement illuminates the potency of Macbeths insanity; his closest friends have now become his strongest enemies. Because of this transformation from friend to foe, Banquo becomes a victim of Macbeths ambition, becomes a symbol of pain caused by the incessant lust for power, becomes a rock from which those like Malcolm and MacDuff launch themselves from in order to overthrow the lost, poisoned mind of Macbeth. Macbeth, his mind racked from the ominous apparitions of his demise, soon learns of MacDuffs flight to England, an action which he uses to justify the murder of many more innocent citizens who, in Macbeths eyes, threaten his very existence and success as king. Pacing in his castle, attempting to discern his best plan for retaliation against MacDuff, Macbeth reveals his desire to seize upon Fife, give to the edge of the sword/ [MacDuffs] wife, his babes, and all the unfortunate souls/ that trace him in his line (IV.ii.151-152). Resorting to rampant murders of noble kin, Macbeth cries out his unnecessary and undeserved desire to eliminate all of those who renounce his right to the throne. Macbeth abnegates all guilt in these times of passion and anger that frequently overpower his no longer existent common sense and discernment. Like the egoist, Macbeth chooses to not only act out of selfish measures, but proclaims that his actions are not of his control, but rather, a direct cause of his own inevitable drive towards success and power. Even as Malcolm misleads MacDuff about his own vices and shortfalls as a leader, MacDuff feels that the vulture in [Malcolm] to devour so many/as the will to greatness dedicate themselves (IV.iii.75-76) cannot exist as it does in Macbeth. MacDuffs belief that Macbeth defines the ultimate evil as a leader as well as his inclusion of Macbeths inexorable will to greatness further corroborates the correlation between a stereotypical psychological egoist and Macbeth. MacDuff describes Macbeths inextinguishable will as the catalyst for Scotlands demise as well as an innate feature that Macbeth contains; Macbeth could never abdicate the throne without force due to his great desire to achieve success for only himself. Eventually, Macbeth realizes his crimes and missteps as king, but still refuses to step away from the unnecessary dismantlement of families who pose a threat to his power. Upon killing young Siward, Macbeth rejoices that no man of woman born can touch him; Siward, who fathered young Siward, similarly rejoices his sons death fighting the ultimate tyrant of their age. As the tyrant Macbeth nears his end, MacDuff enters the castle as the one of all men else who Macbeth has avoided. Knowing his death to arrive by MacDuffs sword, Macbeth fights on with a soul too much charged/ with blood of [MacDuff] already. (V.viii.4-5) His bold disregard for his own life reveals the misconception and ignorance he holds of his own life; Macbeth once again allows himself to be consumed with passion, passion which drives him to his inevitable demise. Society today regards Macbeth as a product of fear and paranoia coupled with a desire for power that is so strong that any means to achieve that power would be taken in order to attain that goal. We see many like Macbeth even today. Like Macbeth, Richard Nixon was a wildly popular figure in United States politics, winning his elections with over 60% of the popular vote. Seeing his own success and desiring so much more, he allowed his paranoia to take hold of him and cheated his way to a second term by bugging the Democratic offices. Many historians believe that this move proved to be completely unnecessary; his popularity already had been sealed with the people. Having followed through with his quest for power, his obsession caused him to inevitably resign from office. Macbeth portrayed many similar characteristics as Richard Nixon. His popularity greatly stood above his peers around him, however; he chooses to instead tear apart a kingdom for his success, a success that likely would have brought him to power anyways. Shakespeare along with history teaches us the power ambition holds over us, the importance of containing that ambition, only searching for what we can do to improve ourselves without harming others. The egoist commonly addresses the criticisms regarding his lust for power as shallow and full of fear, much like Macbeth addresses those who attempt to quell his vaulting ambition. The quest for power controls so many in the world today, but it eventually leads these people to failure much like Macbeths, failure much like Nixons, failure to keep hold of power, failure to sustain a valuable life.

ICRC and onternational law Essay Example for Free

ICRC and onternational law Essay The ICRC started when Swiss businessman Henri Dunant traveled to Italy to meet with Emperor Napoleon III of France . Before he reached Napoleon he first passed through the town of Solferino where a battle was fought. On that day over 40,000 soliders on both sides fell; many were left to die on the battlefield without adequate care. Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle. Instead of proceeding with his planned trip he spent the next few days tending to the wounded. Through his example, the local population began to administer aid without discrimination. When he returned home, he wrote a book called A Memory of Solferino. He sent copies of the book to political and military leaders throughout Europe . He advocated the formation of a national voluntary relief organization to help nurse the wounded and for the development of international treaties to safeguard the neutrality and protect those wounded on the battlefield. By February 9, 1863, Henry Dunant founded the Committee of the Five as an investigatory commission of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant’s ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation. In October 26, 1863, the international conference organized by the Committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battlefield. A conference attended by many European states resolved the following: The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers. Neutrality and protection for those wounded. Utilizing volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield. The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties. The introduction of a common distinctive protective symbol for medical personnel in the field, specifically a white armlet bearing the red cross. Within a year, specific grounds were developed for the recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee; namely: The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and the national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention. The Commission’s first great achievement occurred on 22 August 1864 when the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention â€Å"for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in the Armies in the field. † A total of four Geneva Conventions have been passed since then. With successive conventions aimed an improving or updating previous conventions to ensure that they are up to date with current technology and norms. Today there are 185 national Red Cross societies and over 1,330 employees directly under the ICRC assigned to field operations. All thanks to the initiative of one man. III. ICRC as a Driving Force in IHL The ICRC draws its authority to act principally from the Geneva Conventions and their additional protocols. The Geneva Conventions from the First to the Fourth are the primary international treaties that limit the cruelty of war. They are meant to protect people who do not take part in the fighting, such as civilians, medics and aid workers. They also protect hors de combat or those who no longer have the means to continue fighting such as the wounded, sick, shipwrecked or those who have surrendered. The Geneva Conventions have been acceded to by 194 States and enjoy universal acceptance as a form of custom. The Geneva Conventions then are the primary documents governing International Humanitarian Law and the main overseer of International Humanitarian Law is the ICRC. However, the provisions of the present Convention constitute no obstacle to the humanitarian activities which the International Committee of the Red Cross or any other impartial humanitarian organization may, subject to the consent of the Parties to the conflict concerned, undertake for the protection of civilian persons and for their relief[2]. Article 10 is of considerable value in the field of international law because faced with the barbaric reality of war, the law continues to be realistic and humane. It keeps in mind the object of the Convention, namely the protection of human life and peace between man and man, conscious that it is only a means. (a ridiculously weak means compared to the forces of war) of attaining this goal. When everything has been settled by legal means –ordinary and extraordinary—by assigning rights and duties, by obligations laid upon the belligerents and by the mission of the protecting powers, a corner was still found for something which no legal text can prescribe. However this niche was the most effective means of combating war. That niche is charity or the spirit of peace. This is where Article 10’s symbolic value can be seen. Through it, Henry Dunant’s action on the field of battle in Solferino. Article 10 is more than a tribute to Henry Dunant. It is an invitation to all men of good will to continue his work[3]. In order for the ICRC and subordinate National Commissions to effectively perform their role, members are granted considerable rights and privileges. For example, all Red Cross members have the right to wear the Red Cross, (or crescent in Muslim States). Wearing this mark affords immunity, for all practical purposes from violence by the combatants because, as outlined in Additional Protocol No. 1 of the Geneva Conventions[4] the Red Cross is the mark associating a vehicle, person or building with the ICRC and is sacrosanct and protected[5]. However, any use not expressly authorized by International Humanitarian Law constitutes misuse of the emblem and releases combatants from the obligation to respect the symbol. The types of misuse are Imitation, Usurpation and Perfidy. In fact, Improper use of distinctive emblems in a war crime committed when, in an international armed conflict, an intent to use them for combatant purposes prohibited under international law[6]. Owing to the ICRC’s unique position as the actual commission that proposes and puts forth the Geneva Conventions and other major IHL documents, it can be said that ICRC is the Organization that created IHL. The latter will of course continue to develop as time goes by. Other documents of international law respecting human rights and with respect to international crimes have evolved since then. But International Humanitarian Law began with Henry Dunant and his desire to help the wounded in Solferino.

Causes and Effect of Job Satisfaction on a Company

Causes and Effect of Job Satisfaction on a Company Q.1) ABC company has heard rumors that some of their workers are dissatisfied with their jobs. You have been asked to explain to management the following: 1) what are the major causes of job satisfaction? 2) Why should management be concerned about the job satisfaction of employees? 3) How would you recommend that ABC Company verify or assess that employees are actually dissatisfied; how can job satisfaction be measured? 4) Once ABC Company has determined that the employees are definitely dissatisfied with aspects of their particular jobs, what are ways they could possibly decrease job dissatisfaction? ANSWER: Defining Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction is a pleasurable feeling that results from the perception that ones job fulfills or allows for the fulfillment of ones important job values. It refers to an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes toward the job. What are factors that cause employee satisfaction? Review of the evidence and research* has identified several factors conducive to high levels of employee job satisfaction; some of these factors are controllable by managers and some are not. Factors controllable by management 1. Nature of Work Task Complexity: jobs that are mentally challenging have been consistently found as a main cause of job satisfaction. Simple, repetitive, less challenging jobs are found to a source of frustration and dissatisfaction in employee. Task Meaningfulness: employees belief that the work done by them is meaningful and has significance causes job satisfaction in them. Furthermore, giving autonomy to employees make them feel that they can display their competence and make a positive impact to the organization, is another factor in job satisfaction. Physical Strain: reasonable amount of physical strain and exertion is another determinant in job satisfaction. This factor is sometimes overlooked in the present age of technology. Fact is that advancement in technology has made physical strain even more undesirable work characteristic. 2. Relationship with Supervisor and Colleagues People expect more out of work than merely money or tangible achievements. For most employees, work also fills the need for social interaction. The behavior of an employees manager is found a major cause of satisfaction. Studies generally find that employee satisfaction increases when the immediate supervisor understands the employees, is friendly, praises for good performance, listens to employees opinions, and shows a personal interest in them. 3. Compensation and benefits factors Employees want pay systems that they perceive as just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level, and community pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result. 4. Promotion Policies and Career Development Factor Opportunities for promotion, training programs, and capacity of career development are other factors that cause job satisfaction. Employees seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities, and increased social status. Individuals who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner, therefore, are likely to experience satisfaction from their jobs. 5. Working conditions and environment factors Employees want work environments that support personal comfort and good job performance. Studies demonstrate that employees prefer physical surroundings that are not dangerous or uncomfortable. Most employees also prefer working relatively close to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities, and with adequate tools and equipment. Physical features of workplace like temperature, lighting arrangements, cleanliness, working outdoors, health hazards, sick-building syndrome, social density, privacy in work, all may result in satisfaction or dissatisfaction to employees. 6. Organization development factors Brand of organization in business field and comparison with leading competitor and potential development of organization is a cause of job satisfaction in employees. Missions and Vision of organization is another source of job satisfaction if it complies with employees personal views and goals. Factors not controllable by management: 1. Personality Contemporary research* indicates that employee job satisfaction can be genetically determined. Whether people are happy or not can be found by their gene structure. You either have happy genes or you dont. Scientific research in the field of psychology has been done to find the relationship of job satisfaction with five traits of personality i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These factors with the exception of Openness to Experience have considerable correlation with job satisfaction, as given in Table 1. Impact of personality in work can be controlled if the managers make sure their selection process screens out the negative, maladjusted, troublemaking fault-finders who derive little satisfaction in anything job-related. This is probably best achieved through personality testing, in-depth interviewing, and careful checking of applicants previous work records. Table 1 Available meta-analytic correlations between Big Five personality traits and criteria Big Five Trait Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion Criterion Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Job satisfaction* 0.26 (0.22) 0.17 (0.16) -0.29 (0.16) 0.02 (0.21) 0.25 (0.15) Job performance†  0.28 (0.16) 0.13 (0.15) -0.16 (0.10) 0.08 (0.10) 0.07 (0.14) Leadership†¡ 0.28 (0.17) 0.08 (0.17) -0.24 (0.18) 0.24 (0.11) 0.31 (0.17) Workplace deviance § -0.35 (−) -0.44 () 0.26 (−) -0.08 (−) -0.03 (−) Motivation (goal-setting)** 0.28 (0.07) -0.29 (0.21) -0.29 (0.06) 0.18 0.00 0.15 0.00 Motivation (expectancy)** 0.23 (0.09) 0.13 0.00 -0.29 (0.17) −0.08 0.00 0.1 0.00 Motivation (self-efficacy)** 0.22 (0.15) 0.11 (0.17) -0.35 (0.18) 0.2 (0.04) 0.33 (0.16) Team effectiveness† Ã¢â‚¬   0.11 (0.11) 0.12 (0.13) -0.04 (0.04) 0.05 (0.13) 0.09 (0.04) Notes: Correlations are based on the most recently published meta-analysis for the corresponding criterion. Dashes indicate unreported information. Ï  = estimated true score correlations; SDÏ  = standard deviation of true score correlations. *Reported in Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002). † Reported in Salgado (2003). †¡Reported in Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardt (2002).  §Reported in Berry, Ones, and Sackett (2007). **Reported in Judge and Ilies (2002). † Ã¢â‚¬  Reported in Bell 2007 2. Emotions Regulations Scientific study* has explored the association between emotion regulation, defined as the conscious manipulation of ones public displays of emotion, and job satisfaction. Suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction by improving the quality of interpersonal encounters at work. 3. Life Satisfaction One common research* finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life satisfaction. People who are satisfied with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. However, some research has found that job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other variables such as non-work satisfaction and core self evaluations are taken into account. Why is employee satisfaction important for the organization and the management? Job Satisfaction can be an important indicator of how employees feel about their jobs and a predictor of work behaviors such as organizational citizenship, absenteeism, and turnover. Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviors. Satisfied employees can add value to organization such as: Enhance employee retention Increase productivity Reduce turnover Enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty More energetic employees Improve teamwork Higher quality products and/or services due to more competent, energized employees Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction has direct impact on organization, which can be seen by analyzing the following: Job Satisfaction and Productivity* The evidence suggests that the link between an individuals job satisfaction and his or her productivity is positive. It turns out the productivity can be affected as much by external conditions as it is by job satisfaction. The link between job satisfaction and productivity is much stronger when we look not at individuals, but at the organization as a whole. When satisfaction and productivity data are gathered for the organization as a whole, rather than at the individual level, we find that organizations with more-satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organizations with less-satisfied employees. Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is discretionary behavior that is not part of an employees formal job requirements and is not usually rewarded, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Organizational citizenship is important, as it can help the organization function more efficiently and more effectively. It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employees OCB. Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction Employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Since the management of service organizations should be concerned with pleasing those customers, it is reasonable to ask: Is employee satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes? For front-line employees who have regular contact with customers, the answer is yes. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat, and responsive—which customers appreciate. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: One can find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the correlation is moderate-usually less than 0.40. While it certainly makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. e.g. Organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their employees, including those who are highly satisfied, to take days off. So, outside factors can act to reduce the correlation. Job Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfaction is negatively related to turnover*, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Labour turnover is quite strongly correlated with satisfaction when there is high unemployment. Yet, again, other factors such as labour market conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave ones current job. Workplace Violence and Sabotage: Dissatisfaction in employees may cause violence and sabotage in workplace. Most violence that involves insiders is triggered by extreme levels of dissatisfaction and stress on part of attacker. Dissatisfied workers may either consciously or subconsciously produce faulty products. How can job satisfaction be measured? Job satisfaction is usually measured with interviews or questionnaires administered to the job incumbents in question. Most research is done with questionnaires. This is because interviews are expensive and time consuming to conduct. By contrast, one can survey a large number of people with a paper-and-pencil questionnaires with very little effort or expense. Furthermore, it is easy to quantify and standardize questionnaire responses. Perhaps the easiest way to assess job satisfaction is to use one of the existing scales which have been carefully developed, and in many studies, their reliability and validity have been established. There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction, few of these are briefly mentioned below: 1. Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, Hulin (1969), is a specific questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely used. It measures ones satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or cant decide (indicated by ‘?) in response to whether given statements accurately describe ones job. 2. Job In General Scale (JIG) Job In General Scale (JIG, Ironson et al., 1989) was designed to assess overall job satisfaction rather than facets. Its format is same as the JDI, and it contains 18 items. Each item is an adjective or short phrase about the job in general rather than a facet. The total score is a combination of all items. Advantage of using JIG is that it is quick and easy to use, and disadvantage is that it only gives global measure of job satisfaction and does not provide information about specific facets causing job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. 3. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is designed to measure an employees satisfaction with their particular job. Method includes 100 items measuring 20 facets of job satisfaction. Three revisions of MSQ are available: two long forms (1977 version and 1967 version) and a short form. Long form contains 100 items measuring 20 facets, and short form includes 20 items that best represent each of the 20 scales. Advantages of this method are it is reliable, valid measure of job satisfaction, easy to use, easy to understand, applicable to any organization, applicable for managers, supervisors, and employees. Disadvantage of this method is that it is very long, and uses 20 different facets and it may not be meaningful to have info on each of them. 4. Satisfied / dissatisfied method In this method, you just send a question form that include: What is good thing in our company? What is not good one in our company? This method is suitable for â€Å"emergency events† and you need result in a short time. To assess and measure job satisfaction in employees of ABC Company I would recommend Job Descriptive method (JDI). Job Descriptive Index assesses five most important facets of job satisfaction: * The work itself—responsibility, interest, and growth. * Quality of supervision—technical help and social support. * Relationships with co-workers—social harmony and respect. * Promotion opportunities—chances for further advancement. * Pay—adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à  -vis others. The entire scale contains 72 items with either 9 or 18 items per subscale. Each item is an evaluative adjective or short phrase that is descriptive of the job. Responses are â€Å"Yes† â€Å"Uncertain† or â€Å"No†. Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith, Kendall, Hulin, 1969) has probably been the most popular facet scale among organizational researchers. It also may have been the most carefully developed and validated, as is well described in Smith et al.s book. It is easy to use with all types of respondents and is most commonly used measure of job satisfaction. Scales that measure the overall level of job satisfaction and do not measure the specific facet may not help in identifying the main cause of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Job dissatisfaction can be decreased by considering the following factors: 1. Work itself: Job dissatisfaction can be decreased by Job rotation Job enlargement: knowledge enlargement, task enlargement Job enrichment, add complexity to the task to make it challenging 2. Define Role and Expectations: When an organization makes the decision to fill a new position, it has an idea of what will be expected of the new employee. However, unless these expectations are clearly communicated and role is defined, the result can be disappointing for both the employee and employer. Such situations cause conflict and inefficiencies in the workplace. Therefore, it is very important that the employer establish a mechanism for making sure the needs of the organization are clearly communicated and understood. Role analysis technique can be used to identify and define ones role. 3. Organization development Shared mission or vision: In many organizations, employee doesnt know what is mission, vision, objects. Building a corporate culture that requires employees to be an integral part of the organization can be an effective way of getting the most from the talents or competencies brought to the organization by each employee. Feedback programs: Give employees opportunity to complain to the organization about his work situation. Feedback will help organization to know opinions of their employees. 4. Compensation and benefits: Policies of compensation and benefits are most important part of organization. But you should build your policies at â€Å"suitability† not â€Å"the best†. 5. Appraisal program: You should build the proper evaluation and fair and encourage employees perform work. 6. Relationship with supervisors: Relationship with management is the key factor often happen dissatisfaction of employees. The company should have policies to: Management must be fairly treat the staff Ready to help them Full training for staff Ready to listen and respond to employee 7. Promotions and career development Develop programs to promote all titles in the organization Develop training programs for employees Build programs for career development of each title 8. Working condition and environment Build occupational health and safety program. 9. Improvement programs of employee satisfaction HR department must have the monitoring methods for improvement programs of employee satisfaction. Many organizations just do appraisal of employee satisfaction but not pay attention to role of monitoring. Build solutions to improve satisfaction Training all level of management about the importance of satisfaction and methods to increase satisfaction. 10. Employees by themselves Hiring the right employees Clearly defined and communicated employee expectations. References References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the answer. *Timothy A. Judge, Daniel Heller and Michael K. Mount. Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 2002, Vol. 87, No. 3, 530-541 *Ste ´Phane Co ˆ Te and Laura M. Morgan. A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 23, 947-962 (2002) *Timothy A. Judge, Daniel Heller and Michael K. Mount. Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 2002, Vol. 87, No. 3, 530-541 *John A. Wagner III John R. Hollenback. Organizational Behavior, Securing Competitive Advantage, 5E. by South-Westrn, 2009 * Robbins, Stephen P., and Timothy A. Judge. Organization Behavior. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 156-158. *Steven G. Westlund and John C. Hannon. Retaining Talent: Assessing Job Satisfaction Facets Most Significantly Related To Software Developer Turnover Intentions. Journal of Information Technology Management Volume XIX, Number 4, 2008 Q3) Compare and contrast the rational decision making model with the bounded rationality model of decision-making. In what ways does the theory of bounded rationality differ from the rational model and what are the characteristics of each? Which do you feel is a better representation of decision-making and why? ANSWER: The rational decision-making model is sometimes referred to as the rational economic model as it includes a primary assumption of economic rationality, that is, the notion that people attempt to maximize their economic outcomes, where alternative with the highest expected worth is selected as preferred alternative. Rational decision making processes consist of a sequence of steps designed to rationally develop a desired solution. Typically these steps involve: 1. Verify, Define, and Detail the problem: The first step is to recognize a problem or to see opportunities that may be worthwhile. A rational decision making model is best employed where relatively complex decisions have to be made. 2. Identify the Criteria: What is relevant and what is not relevant to the decision? What do you need to know before you can make a decision or what will help you make the right one? 3. Analyzing the situation: What alternative courses of action may be available to you? What different interpretations of the data may be possible? 4. Developing options: Generate several possible options. Be creative and positive. 5. Evaluating alternatives: What criteria should you use to evaluate? Evaluate for feasibility, acceptability and desirability. Which alternative will best achieve your objectives? 6. Selecting a preferred alternative: Explore the provisional preferred alternative for future possible adverse consequences. What problems might it create? What are the risks of making this decision? Assumptions made by rational decision-making model There are six assumptions of the rational decision-making model: Problem clarity: The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding the decision situation. Known options: Identify all the relevant criteria and can list all the viable alternatives. The decision maker is aware of all the possible consequences of each alternative. Clear preference: The criteria and alternatives can be ranked and given weight to reflect their importance. Constant preferences: The specific decision criteria are constant and that weights assigned to them are stable over time. No time or cost constraints: The rational decision maker can obtain full information about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost constraints. Maximum payoff: The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest perceived value. Rational decision making model presupposes that there is one best outcome. The search for perfection is frequently a factor in actually delaying making a decision. Such a model also presupposes that it is possible to consider every option and also to know the future consequences of each. While many would like to think they know what will happen, the universe often has other plans! It is also limited by the cognitive abilities of the person making the decision; how good is their memory? How good is their imagination? The criteria themselves, of course, will be subjective and may be difficult to compare. These models require a great deal of time and a great deal of information. And, of course, a rational decision making model attempts to negate the role of emotions in decision making. Bounded Rationality Decision Making Model Bounded Rationality theory accepts the notion of bounded rationality and suggests that people act only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation. Because these perceptions are frequently imperfect, most organizational decision making does not take place in a world of complete certainty. Rather, the behavioral decision maker is viewed as acting most often under uncertain conditions and with limited information. Organizational decision makers face problems that are often ambiguous, and they have only partial knowledge of the available action alternatives and their consequences. As Herbert Simon states: â€Å"Most human decision making, whether individual or organizational, is concerned with the discovery and selection of satisfactory alternatives; only in exceptional cases is it concerned with the discovery and selection of optimal decisions.† Alternative model to rational decision making model based on the theory of bounded rationality called the administrative model is actually a critique of the rational model. Simon says the rational model is prescriptive or normative, the way it is supposed to be, rather than the way it is. Simon presented the administrative model as a realistic antidote, the way it really is. Administrative model he says is the way decisions are actually made. Simon coined a term of Satisficing means settling for the first alternative that seems to meet some minimum level of acceptability. Search for a needle in the haystack. Optimize is to look for the sharpest. Satisfied is to search until you find the needle that is just sharp enough to do the job. He says there are limits on decision making: Bounded rationality: imperfect information about goals and courses of action and relation of means to ends; Bounded discretion: constraints on optimizing, prior commitments, moral and ethical standards, laws, and social standards; Bounded rationality recognizes that it is impossible to comprehend and analyze all of the potentially relevant information in making choices. The only possible way of coping with the complexity of the world is to develop techniques, habits and standard operating procedures (SOP) to facilitate decision making. Widely shared SOPs are institutions. HabitRoutine responses and behaviors based on reinforcement e.g. brushing your teeth in the morning. TechniqueWays to deal with generalized situations e.g., read reviews before selecting a hotel. SOPgroup and organizational rules for decisions e.g., our firm reorders when inventories reach one month of recent sales. Which model better represents decision-making? Rational decision making model provides a guideline of what managers ideally should be doing, but it does not represent what managers actually do. When decision makers are faced with a simple problem and few alternative courses of action, and when the cost of searching out and evaluating alternatives is low, the rational model provides a fairly accurate description of the decision process. However, such situations are the exception. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. For instance, people are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solution to their problem rather than an optimizing one. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. People are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solution to their problem rather than an optimizing one. Thus decision makers may rely on bounded rationality, satisficing, intuition, and judgment shortcuts in making decisions. In an ideal situation, manager faces a clearly defined problem, knows all possible action alternatives and their consequences, and then chooses the alternative that offers the best, or â€Å"optimum,† solution to the problem. This optimizing style is an ideal way to make decisions. This rational approach is normative and prescriptive, and is often used as a model for how managers should make decisions. However, Behavioral scientists are cautious about applying rational decision theory to many decision situations. They recognize that the human mind is a wonderful creation, capable of infinite achievements. But they also recognize that human beings have cognitive limitations that restrict their information-processing capabilities. Information deficiencies and overload compromise the ability of decision makers to achieve complete certainty and otherwise operate according to the rational model. Human decision makers also operate with bounded rationality. Bounded rationality is sug gests that, while individuals are reasoned and logical, humans have their limits. Individuals interpret and make sense of things within the context of their personal situation. This makes it difficult to realize the ideal of rational decision making. As a result, the rational model does not give a full and accurate description of how most decisions are made in organizations. References References marked with an asterisk â€Å" * † indicate studies included in the answers. *John A. Wagner III John R. Hollenback. Organizational Behavior, Securing Competitive Advantage, 5E. by South-Westrn, 2009 * Robbins, Stephen P., and Timothy A. Judge. Organization Behavior. 12E. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 156-158. * John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., James G. Hunt, Richard Osborn. Organization Behavior. 7E. John Wiley Sons, Inc, 2002 Q.4) Discuss goal-setting theory and its major conclusions. How do major conclusions of goal setting inform managers, or how can managers apply what research on goal setting has found in managing employees? ANSWER: Goal Setting Theory The prime axiom of goal setting theory is that specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance than when people strive to simply â€Å"do their best†, (Locke, 1966; Locke Latham, 1990). Goals play an important part in high performance work environments. Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing. The model uses elements of expectancy theory to help clarify the implications of goal setting for performance while taking into account certain moderating conditions, such as ability and task complexity. Lockes research showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and peoples performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. Telling someone to Try hard or Do your best is less effective than Try to get more than 80% correct. Likewise, having a goal thats too easy is not a motivating force. Hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because its much more of an accomplishment to achieve something that you have to work for. Locke and his colleagues spend considerable time on research* and studied the effects of goal setting, which can be concluded as: Specific goals increase performance, under certain conditions Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals Feedback leads to higher performance Causes and Effect of Job Satisfaction on a Company Causes and Effect of Job Satisfaction on a Company Q.1) ABC company has heard rumors that some of their workers are dissatisfied with their jobs. You have been asked to explain to management the following: 1) what are the major causes of job satisfaction? 2) Why should management be concerned about the job satisfaction of employees? 3) How would you recommend that ABC Company verify or assess that employees are actually dissatisfied; how can job satisfaction be measured? 4) Once ABC Company has determined that the employees are definitely dissatisfied with aspects of their particular jobs, what are ways they could possibly decrease job dissatisfaction? ANSWER: Defining Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction is a pleasurable feeling that results from the perception that ones job fulfills or allows for the fulfillment of ones important job values. It refers to an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes toward the job. What are factors that cause employee satisfaction? Review of the evidence and research* has identified several factors conducive to high levels of employee job satisfaction; some of these factors are controllable by managers and some are not. Factors controllable by management 1. Nature of Work Task Complexity: jobs that are mentally challenging have been consistently found as a main cause of job satisfaction. Simple, repetitive, less challenging jobs are found to a source of frustration and dissatisfaction in employee. Task Meaningfulness: employees belief that the work done by them is meaningful and has significance causes job satisfaction in them. Furthermore, giving autonomy to employees make them feel that they can display their competence and make a positive impact to the organization, is another factor in job satisfaction. Physical Strain: reasonable amount of physical strain and exertion is another determinant in job satisfaction. This factor is sometimes overlooked in the present age of technology. Fact is that advancement in technology has made physical strain even more undesirable work characteristic. 2. Relationship with Supervisor and Colleagues People expect more out of work than merely money or tangible achievements. For most employees, work also fills the need for social interaction. The behavior of an employees manager is found a major cause of satisfaction. Studies generally find that employee satisfaction increases when the immediate supervisor understands the employees, is friendly, praises for good performance, listens to employees opinions, and shows a personal interest in them. 3. Compensation and benefits factors Employees want pay systems that they perceive as just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level, and community pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result. 4. Promotion Policies and Career Development Factor Opportunities for promotion, training programs, and capacity of career development are other factors that cause job satisfaction. Employees seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities, and increased social status. Individuals who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner, therefore, are likely to experience satisfaction from their jobs. 5. Working conditions and environment factors Employees want work environments that support personal comfort and good job performance. Studies demonstrate that employees prefer physical surroundings that are not dangerous or uncomfortable. Most employees also prefer working relatively close to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities, and with adequate tools and equipment. Physical features of workplace like temperature, lighting arrangements, cleanliness, working outdoors, health hazards, sick-building syndrome, social density, privacy in work, all may result in satisfaction or dissatisfaction to employees. 6. Organization development factors Brand of organization in business field and comparison with leading competitor and potential development of organization is a cause of job satisfaction in employees. Missions and Vision of organization is another source of job satisfaction if it complies with employees personal views and goals. Factors not controllable by management: 1. Personality Contemporary research* indicates that employee job satisfaction can be genetically determined. Whether people are happy or not can be found by their gene structure. You either have happy genes or you dont. Scientific research in the field of psychology has been done to find the relationship of job satisfaction with five traits of personality i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These factors with the exception of Openness to Experience have considerable correlation with job satisfaction, as given in Table 1. Impact of personality in work can be controlled if the managers make sure their selection process screens out the negative, maladjusted, troublemaking fault-finders who derive little satisfaction in anything job-related. This is probably best achieved through personality testing, in-depth interviewing, and careful checking of applicants previous work records. Table 1 Available meta-analytic correlations between Big Five personality traits and criteria Big Five Trait Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion Criterion Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Ï  SDÏ  Job satisfaction* 0.26 (0.22) 0.17 (0.16) -0.29 (0.16) 0.02 (0.21) 0.25 (0.15) Job performance†  0.28 (0.16) 0.13 (0.15) -0.16 (0.10) 0.08 (0.10) 0.07 (0.14) Leadership†¡ 0.28 (0.17) 0.08 (0.17) -0.24 (0.18) 0.24 (0.11) 0.31 (0.17) Workplace deviance § -0.35 (−) -0.44 () 0.26 (−) -0.08 (−) -0.03 (−) Motivation (goal-setting)** 0.28 (0.07) -0.29 (0.21) -0.29 (0.06) 0.18 0.00 0.15 0.00 Motivation (expectancy)** 0.23 (0.09) 0.13 0.00 -0.29 (0.17) −0.08 0.00 0.1 0.00 Motivation (self-efficacy)** 0.22 (0.15) 0.11 (0.17) -0.35 (0.18) 0.2 (0.04) 0.33 (0.16) Team effectiveness† Ã¢â‚¬   0.11 (0.11) 0.12 (0.13) -0.04 (0.04) 0.05 (0.13) 0.09 (0.04) Notes: Correlations are based on the most recently published meta-analysis for the corresponding criterion. Dashes indicate unreported information. Ï  = estimated true score correlations; SDÏ  = standard deviation of true score correlations. *Reported in Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002). † Reported in Salgado (2003). †¡Reported in Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardt (2002).  §Reported in Berry, Ones, and Sackett (2007). **Reported in Judge and Ilies (2002). † Ã¢â‚¬  Reported in Bell 2007 2. Emotions Regulations Scientific study* has explored the association between emotion regulation, defined as the conscious manipulation of ones public displays of emotion, and job satisfaction. Suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction by improving the quality of interpersonal encounters at work. 3. Life Satisfaction One common research* finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life satisfaction. People who are satisfied with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. However, some research has found that job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other variables such as non-work satisfaction and core self evaluations are taken into account. Why is employee satisfaction important for the organization and the management? Job Satisfaction can be an important indicator of how employees feel about their jobs and a predictor of work behaviors such as organizational citizenship, absenteeism, and turnover. Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviors. Satisfied employees can add value to organization such as: Enhance employee retention Increase productivity Reduce turnover Enhance customer satisfaction and loyalty More energetic employees Improve teamwork Higher quality products and/or services due to more competent, energized employees Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction has direct impact on organization, which can be seen by analyzing the following: Job Satisfaction and Productivity* The evidence suggests that the link between an individuals job satisfaction and his or her productivity is positive. It turns out the productivity can be affected as much by external conditions as it is by job satisfaction. The link between job satisfaction and productivity is much stronger when we look not at individuals, but at the organization as a whole. When satisfaction and productivity data are gathered for the organization as a whole, rather than at the individual level, we find that organizations with more-satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organizations with less-satisfied employees. Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is discretionary behavior that is not part of an employees formal job requirements and is not usually rewarded, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Organizational citizenship is important, as it can help the organization function more efficiently and more effectively. It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employees OCB. Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction Employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Since the management of service organizations should be concerned with pleasing those customers, it is reasonable to ask: Is employee satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes? For front-line employees who have regular contact with customers, the answer is yes. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat, and responsive—which customers appreciate. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism: One can find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the correlation is moderate-usually less than 0.40. While it certainly makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. e.g. Organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their employees, including those who are highly satisfied, to take days off. So, outside factors can act to reduce the correlation. Job Satisfaction and Turnover: Satisfaction is negatively related to turnover*, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Labour turnover is quite strongly correlated with satisfaction when there is high unemployment. Yet, again, other factors such as labour market conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave ones current job. Workplace Violence and Sabotage: Dissatisfaction in employees may cause violence and sabotage in workplace. Most violence that involves insiders is triggered by extreme levels of dissatisfaction and stress on part of attacker. Dissatisfied workers may either consciously or subconsciously produce faulty products. How can job satisfaction be measured? Job satisfaction is usually measured with interviews or questionnaires administered to the job incumbents in question. Most research is done with questionnaires. This is because interviews are expensive and time consuming to conduct. By contrast, one can survey a large number of people with a paper-and-pencil questionnaires with very little effort or expense. Furthermore, it is easy to quantify and standardize questionnaire responses. Perhaps the easiest way to assess job satisfaction is to use one of the existing scales which have been carefully developed, and in many studies, their reliability and validity have been established. There are many methods for measuring job satisfaction, few of these are briefly mentioned below: 1. Job Descriptive Index (JDI), created by Smith, Kendall, Hulin (1969), is a specific questionnaire of job satisfaction that has been widely used. It measures ones satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or cant decide (indicated by ‘?) in response to whether given statements accurately describe ones job. 2. Job In General Scale (JIG) Job In General Scale (JIG, Ironson et al., 1989) was designed to assess overall job satisfaction rather than facets. Its format is same as the JDI, and it contains 18 items. Each item is an adjective or short phrase about the job in general rather than a facet. The total score is a combination of all items. Advantage of using JIG is that it is quick and easy to use, and disadvantage is that it only gives global measure of job satisfaction and does not provide information about specific facets causing job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. 3. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is designed to measure an employees satisfaction with their particular job. Method includes 100 items measuring 20 facets of job satisfaction. Three revisions of MSQ are available: two long forms (1977 version and 1967 version) and a short form. Long form contains 100 items measuring 20 facets, and short form includes 20 items that best represent each of the 20 scales. Advantages of this method are it is reliable, valid measure of job satisfaction, easy to use, easy to understand, applicable to any organization, applicable for managers, supervisors, and employees. Disadvantage of this method is that it is very long, and uses 20 different facets and it may not be meaningful to have info on each of them. 4. Satisfied / dissatisfied method In this method, you just send a question form that include: What is good thing in our company? What is not good one in our company? This method is suitable for â€Å"emergency events† and you need result in a short time. To assess and measure job satisfaction in employees of ABC Company I would recommend Job Descriptive method (JDI). Job Descriptive Index assesses five most important facets of job satisfaction: * The work itself—responsibility, interest, and growth. * Quality of supervision—technical help and social support. * Relationships with co-workers—social harmony and respect. * Promotion opportunities—chances for further advancement. * Pay—adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à  -vis others. The entire scale contains 72 items with either 9 or 18 items per subscale. Each item is an evaluative adjective or short phrase that is descriptive of the job. Responses are â€Å"Yes† â€Å"Uncertain† or â€Å"No†. Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith, Kendall, Hulin, 1969) has probably been the most popular facet scale among organizational researchers. It also may have been the most carefully developed and validated, as is well described in Smith et al.s book. It is easy to use with all types of respondents and is most commonly used measure of job satisfaction. Scales that measure the overall level of job satisfaction and do not measure the specific facet may not help in identifying the main cause of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Job dissatisfaction can be decreased by considering the following factors: 1. Work itself: Job dissatisfaction can be decreased by Job rotation Job enlargement: knowledge enlargement, task enlargement Job enrichment, add complexity to the task to make it challenging 2. Define Role and Expectations: When an organization makes the decision to fill a new position, it has an idea of what will be expected of the new employee. However, unless these expectations are clearly communicated and role is defined, the result can be disappointing for both the employee and employer. Such situations cause conflict and inefficiencies in the workplace. Therefore, it is very important that the employer establish a mechanism for making sure the needs of the organization are clearly communicated and understood. Role analysis technique can be used to identify and define ones role. 3. Organization development Shared mission or vision: In many organizations, employee doesnt know what is mission, vision, objects. Building a corporate culture that requires employees to be an integral part of the organization can be an effective way of getting the most from the talents or competencies brought to the organization by each employee. Feedback programs: Give employees opportunity to complain to the organization about his work situation. Feedback will help organization to know opinions of their employees. 4. Compensation and benefits: Policies of compensation and benefits are most important part of organization. But you should build your policies at â€Å"suitability† not â€Å"the best†. 5. Appraisal program: You should build the proper evaluation and fair and encourage employees perform work. 6. Relationship with supervisors: Relationship with management is the key factor often happen dissatisfaction of employees. The company should have policies to: Management must be fairly treat the staff Ready to help them Full training for staff Ready to listen and respond to employee 7. Promotions and career development Develop programs to promote all titles in the organization Develop training programs for employees Build programs for career development of each title 8. Working condition and environment Build occupational health and safety program. 9. Improvement programs of employee satisfaction HR department must have the monitoring methods for improvement programs of employee satisfaction. Many organizations just do appraisal of employee satisfaction but not pay attention to role of monitoring. Build solutions to improve satisfaction Training all level of management about the importance of satisfaction and methods to increase satisfaction. 10. Employees by themselves Hiring the right employees Clearly defined and communicated employee expectations. References References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the answer. *Timothy A. Judge, Daniel Heller and Michael K. Mount. Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 2002, Vol. 87, No. 3, 530-541 *Ste ´Phane Co ˆ Te and Laura M. Morgan. A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 23, 947-962 (2002) *Timothy A. Judge, Daniel Heller and Michael K. Mount. Five-Factor Model of Personality and Job Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 2002, Vol. 87, No. 3, 530-541 *John A. Wagner III John R. Hollenback. Organizational Behavior, Securing Competitive Advantage, 5E. by South-Westrn, 2009 * Robbins, Stephen P., and Timothy A. Judge. Organization Behavior. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 156-158. *Steven G. Westlund and John C. Hannon. Retaining Talent: Assessing Job Satisfaction Facets Most Significantly Related To Software Developer Turnover Intentions. Journal of Information Technology Management Volume XIX, Number 4, 2008 Q3) Compare and contrast the rational decision making model with the bounded rationality model of decision-making. In what ways does the theory of bounded rationality differ from the rational model and what are the characteristics of each? Which do you feel is a better representation of decision-making and why? ANSWER: The rational decision-making model is sometimes referred to as the rational economic model as it includes a primary assumption of economic rationality, that is, the notion that people attempt to maximize their economic outcomes, where alternative with the highest expected worth is selected as preferred alternative. Rational decision making processes consist of a sequence of steps designed to rationally develop a desired solution. Typically these steps involve: 1. Verify, Define, and Detail the problem: The first step is to recognize a problem or to see opportunities that may be worthwhile. A rational decision making model is best employed where relatively complex decisions have to be made. 2. Identify the Criteria: What is relevant and what is not relevant to the decision? What do you need to know before you can make a decision or what will help you make the right one? 3. Analyzing the situation: What alternative courses of action may be available to you? What different interpretations of the data may be possible? 4. Developing options: Generate several possible options. Be creative and positive. 5. Evaluating alternatives: What criteria should you use to evaluate? Evaluate for feasibility, acceptability and desirability. Which alternative will best achieve your objectives? 6. Selecting a preferred alternative: Explore the provisional preferred alternative for future possible adverse consequences. What problems might it create? What are the risks of making this decision? Assumptions made by rational decision-making model There are six assumptions of the rational decision-making model: Problem clarity: The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding the decision situation. Known options: Identify all the relevant criteria and can list all the viable alternatives. The decision maker is aware of all the possible consequences of each alternative. Clear preference: The criteria and alternatives can be ranked and given weight to reflect their importance. Constant preferences: The specific decision criteria are constant and that weights assigned to them are stable over time. No time or cost constraints: The rational decision maker can obtain full information about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost constraints. Maximum payoff: The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest perceived value. Rational decision making model presupposes that there is one best outcome. The search for perfection is frequently a factor in actually delaying making a decision. Such a model also presupposes that it is possible to consider every option and also to know the future consequences of each. While many would like to think they know what will happen, the universe often has other plans! It is also limited by the cognitive abilities of the person making the decision; how good is their memory? How good is their imagination? The criteria themselves, of course, will be subjective and may be difficult to compare. These models require a great deal of time and a great deal of information. And, of course, a rational decision making model attempts to negate the role of emotions in decision making. Bounded Rationality Decision Making Model Bounded Rationality theory accepts the notion of bounded rationality and suggests that people act only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation. Because these perceptions are frequently imperfect, most organizational decision making does not take place in a world of complete certainty. Rather, the behavioral decision maker is viewed as acting most often under uncertain conditions and with limited information. Organizational decision makers face problems that are often ambiguous, and they have only partial knowledge of the available action alternatives and their consequences. As Herbert Simon states: â€Å"Most human decision making, whether individual or organizational, is concerned with the discovery and selection of satisfactory alternatives; only in exceptional cases is it concerned with the discovery and selection of optimal decisions.† Alternative model to rational decision making model based on the theory of bounded rationality called the administrative model is actually a critique of the rational model. Simon says the rational model is prescriptive or normative, the way it is supposed to be, rather than the way it is. Simon presented the administrative model as a realistic antidote, the way it really is. Administrative model he says is the way decisions are actually made. Simon coined a term of Satisficing means settling for the first alternative that seems to meet some minimum level of acceptability. Search for a needle in the haystack. Optimize is to look for the sharpest. Satisfied is to search until you find the needle that is just sharp enough to do the job. He says there are limits on decision making: Bounded rationality: imperfect information about goals and courses of action and relation of means to ends; Bounded discretion: constraints on optimizing, prior commitments, moral and ethical standards, laws, and social standards; Bounded rationality recognizes that it is impossible to comprehend and analyze all of the potentially relevant information in making choices. The only possible way of coping with the complexity of the world is to develop techniques, habits and standard operating procedures (SOP) to facilitate decision making. Widely shared SOPs are institutions. HabitRoutine responses and behaviors based on reinforcement e.g. brushing your teeth in the morning. TechniqueWays to deal with generalized situations e.g., read reviews before selecting a hotel. SOPgroup and organizational rules for decisions e.g., our firm reorders when inventories reach one month of recent sales. Which model better represents decision-making? Rational decision making model provides a guideline of what managers ideally should be doing, but it does not represent what managers actually do. When decision makers are faced with a simple problem and few alternative courses of action, and when the cost of searching out and evaluating alternatives is low, the rational model provides a fairly accurate description of the decision process. However, such situations are the exception. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. For instance, people are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solution to their problem rather than an optimizing one. Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. People are usually content to find an acceptable or reasonable solution to their problem rather than an optimizing one. Thus decision makers may rely on bounded rationality, satisficing, intuition, and judgment shortcuts in making decisions. In an ideal situation, manager faces a clearly defined problem, knows all possible action alternatives and their consequences, and then chooses the alternative that offers the best, or â€Å"optimum,† solution to the problem. This optimizing style is an ideal way to make decisions. This rational approach is normative and prescriptive, and is often used as a model for how managers should make decisions. However, Behavioral scientists are cautious about applying rational decision theory to many decision situations. They recognize that the human mind is a wonderful creation, capable of infinite achievements. But they also recognize that human beings have cognitive limitations that restrict their information-processing capabilities. Information deficiencies and overload compromise the ability of decision makers to achieve complete certainty and otherwise operate according to the rational model. Human decision makers also operate with bounded rationality. Bounded rationality is sug gests that, while individuals are reasoned and logical, humans have their limits. Individuals interpret and make sense of things within the context of their personal situation. This makes it difficult to realize the ideal of rational decision making. As a result, the rational model does not give a full and accurate description of how most decisions are made in organizations. References References marked with an asterisk â€Å" * † indicate studies included in the answers. *John A. Wagner III John R. Hollenback. Organizational Behavior, Securing Competitive Advantage, 5E. by South-Westrn, 2009 * Robbins, Stephen P., and Timothy A. Judge. Organization Behavior. 12E. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 156-158. * John R. Schermerhorn, Jr., James G. Hunt, Richard Osborn. Organization Behavior. 7E. John Wiley Sons, Inc, 2002 Q.4) Discuss goal-setting theory and its major conclusions. How do major conclusions of goal setting inform managers, or how can managers apply what research on goal setting has found in managing employees? ANSWER: Goal Setting Theory The prime axiom of goal setting theory is that specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance than when people strive to simply â€Å"do their best†, (Locke, 1966; Locke Latham, 1990). Goals play an important part in high performance work environments. Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing. The model uses elements of expectancy theory to help clarify the implications of goal setting for performance while taking into account certain moderating conditions, such as ability and task complexity. Lockes research showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and peoples performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. Telling someone to Try hard or Do your best is less effective than Try to get more than 80% correct. Likewise, having a goal thats too easy is not a motivating force. Hard goals are more motivating than easy goals, because its much more of an accomplishment to achieve something that you have to work for. Locke and his colleagues spend considerable time on research* and studied the effects of goal setting, which can be concluded as: Specific goals increase performance, under certain conditions Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals Feedback leads to higher performance

Analysis of Quality Improvement Initiative

Analysis of Quality Improvement Initiative With reference to the practice development literature, critically discuss the principles informing a quality improvement initiative in your area of practice as a Community Registered General Nurse Introduction The purpose of this assignment is to critically analyse a quality improvement initiative, namely the updating of care plans and other documentation within the student’s area of practice, which is Community Nursing. The chosen initiative has occurred within the framework of practice development. The concept of practice development originates from the 1980s when Nursing Development Units (NDUs) were established with the aim of advancing the profession of nursing in order to benefit both patient care and the profession (Bassett and McSherry 2002). Practice development is becoming a part of every Trust’s strategy, being seen as an essential requirement for modernising health care. A key component of practice development is the integration of research- based evidence into practice. Another key element of practice development is Total Quality Management (TQM), a process that involves quality assessment, quality improvement and quality assurance (Blackie and Appleby 1998).Clinical governance is a system whereby health care providers are accountable for the provision of quality services (McSherry et al 2002). Magnet hospitals provide an example of centres of excellence that actively demonstrate high standards of care (UK healthcare 2007). Practice development also involves increased interprofessional working and the empowerment of patients and clients, thus embracing the concept of consumerism (Chin 2003). Consumerism within healthcare refers to its recipients having more informed expectations about healthcare provision and being able to articulate these (Gough P 2002). In Ireland the Commission on Nursing (1998) recognised that increasingly, people are being cared for in the community as opposed to other settings and accordingly made recommendations for the development of public health nursing with more emphasis to be placed on health promotion and prevention, thus paving the way for practice development within community nursing. Inevitably practice development involves change. Within healthcare there have been several areas of reform, which have been influenced by social, economic and political factors (Brooks and Brown 2002). As a result health care services need to be responsive to the need for change. Theoretical overview This section will further examine the relationships between practice development, quality issues and change theory, with particular emphasis on the implementation of change. Practice development is a continuous process of improvement that works towards the transformation of care. It is a process that requires management, in order to advance its progress, which needs to be done in a systematic and rigorous way (Titchen and Higgs 2001a). In some areas facilitators have been appointed with the specific remit of advancing practice development; elsewhere practice development units have been established (Bournemouth University 2007a). Practice development is said to dovetail with clinical governance standards (Bournemouth University 2007b) and is linked to quality issues in the following ways: by empowering healthcare professionals, patients/ clients and carers; by promoting a client- centred approach towards delivery of care; by promoting interprofessional communication and collaboration; by working towards clinical governance; by facilitating the selection, recruitment and retention of quality staff; by influencing organisation strategy in line with National Policy and by drawing upon the knowledge and skill of identified experts. An essential element for the delivery of quality care is evidence- based practice (Parsley and Corrigan 1999). As highlighted within the introduction, an important element of practice development is ensuring that practice is informed by research. Strategies for introducing research into nursing practice include the creation of nurse researcher posts; encouraging nurses to access continuing development opportunities that will enhance their research skills, promoting research- mindedness as well as research activity; making research findings accessible to practitioners; forging stronger links between educational institutions and clinical practice areas and setting- up journal clubs. Because of the developing nature of the discipline, community nurses are often involved in research activity whether as participants or researchers (Lawton et al 2000). However there is evidence to indicate that not all nurses are actively basing their practice on research findings; some are neither researc h active nor research- minded, so there is developmental work needed in this area (Banning 2005). As previously identified within the introduction, it is inevitable that practice development involves the need for change.(Titchen and Higgs 2001b). The change strategies framework by Bennis (1976) provides a useful model for understanding and challenging the different assumptions we have about what effectively brings about change. The framework includes three strategies for bringing about change which are based on different assumptions about human behaviour, and which involve three distinctly different approaches. The first strategy (rational- empirical), is based on the supposition that ‘knowledge is power’. Within this strategy it is assumed that an individual will change in response to receiving reliable and valid information. For example, if a manager in a healthcare setting wishes to initiate change, this strategy would involve giving information to the healthcare practitioners involved, that includes valid reasons for making changes to their practice. The reality is that people are often resistant to change and may adopt certain strategies in an attempt to avoid change. For example, they might adopt Freudian mental defence mechanisms, which are (in this case) maladaptive coping strategies used to circumvent evidence that change is necessary. These include denial, intellectualisation (which i nvolves citing contradictory evidence), or rationalisation, among others (Lupton 1995). Resorting to these defences can undermine the power of knowledge and evidence, however valid and reliable it is. The second strategy (power- coercive) involves the use of legislation and policy change in order to enforce health- related change. Within this strategy, a manager would use power, authority and/ or disciplinary procedures to bring about changes in practice. Inevitably there are some legislative and policy changes that inform practice, so there will be times when this strategy is used. The first two strategies adopt a ‘top- down’ approach whereas the third strategy (normative- re-educative) is based on the assumption that an individual is more likely to change if they have had involvement in bringing about the change; if they feel empowered. According to Wheeler and Grice (2000), this last approach is critical if the enthusiasm and cooperation of those affected by the change process is to be gained. This is the approach that the student aimed to use when putting her chosen change initiative into practice, which is analysed within the next section. Practice Development initiative The chosen initiative was to update care plans and other documentation. As nurses we are accountable through our documentation; there could be legal consequences to what we write (Richmond and Whiteley 1999). Care plans and other nursing documentation are essential communication tools. The language used therefore, should be clear and unambiguous, and avoid the use of abbreviations. A well- written care plan should provide all the information that a nurse needs to provide comprehensive care to a patient. A care plan should not just be a ‘paper exercise’ but an integral part of nursing activity. The need for this change initiative was identified by staff, patients and management. This was a promising start as the drivers for the change came from everybody who would be affected by it. As the last section proposed, change is more likely to be taken on board if all involved have been included within the decision- making process. It was found that the existing care plans were insufficient for use with a client- group who have increasingly complex needs. Care plans are based on nursing models, which are derived from nursing theory. Nursing theory is a knowledge base that has been developed specifically for nursing. Practice development and research contributes towards the continued development of nursing theory. A nursing model is a conceptual framework; a blueprint for nursing practice. The appropriateness of nursing documentation contributes towards closing the theory- practice gap. We should therefore review our nursing documentation at regular intervals and strive for excellence in relation to these tools. The model of choice for the revised care plans was Orem’s Self- Care Model which is based on the belief that the individual has a need for self- care actions, and that nursing can assist in meeting that need. This model is widely used in all areas of nursing. Orem suggests that a person needs nursing care when the person has a health- related self- care deficit. She has defined three nursing/ care systems based on the premise that the nursing/ care system depends on the self- care needs and abilities of the clients: wholly compensatory the nurse gives total care to meet all needs; partly compensatoryboth the nurse and the client perform care measures; supportive- educative the client can carry out self- care activities but requires assistance (Taylor et al 1997). The emphasis on self- care within this model was the rationale for choosing this model for use within a community setting where frequently the nurse works in partnership with the patient and their informal carers and facilitates the reduction of their dependence on her, as the ability of the patient to be self- caring increases. With most if not all, change processes there are factors that can be harnessed to drive change, and there are factors which impede or restrain, change. A model which can be used to identify driving and restraining factors is forcefield analysis (Martin and Whiteley 2003). This enables us to identify and work with, both the negative and positive forces. In relation to the change initiative i.e. updating care plans and other documentation, the driving forces were identified as: the commitment of most staff; strong leadership and a generally agreed need for an increased customer focus. The restraining forces were identified as: resistance from a small number of staff; lack of time to devote to the project and the need for education and training in the effective and consistent use of care plans. It was essential that the tools to be developed met with recognised quality standards and guidelines; therefore the developmental work was informed by the Irish Health Services Accreditation Board (2007). The Board is concerned with quality and safety issues across the health care system in Ireland. The values which underpin its work; patient- centredness; integrity and accountability; excellence, innovation and partnership provided us with an excellent framework upon which to base the development of the new care plans. The change initiative could also be described as a benchmarking project (Pickering and Thompson 2003). Benchmarking involves: the sharing of best practice; user involvement; a user- focused approach; the use of an evidence- based approach and the use of stepping stones to work towards the benchmark (NHS Modernisation Agency 2001). As far as possible the initiative was designed to meet these criteria. Drawing upon the principles of the forcefield analysis outcomes, the guidance provided by the Irish Health Services Accreditation Board and the benchmarking criteria, the project was designed as follows: A working group was set up to represent the views and input of all who would be affected by the change which included user representation. It was hoped that if those affected by the change were involved in the development of the initiative from the start, then they would be more committed towards it. Staff who showed an initial resistance tended to become more enthusiastic about the project once they became involved in the initiative. Time issues were addressed by delegating aspects of the work to different people, which was coordinated by a project manager. By breaking the task down into manageable parts, these became the ‘stepping stones’ of this benchmark project and helped to promote involvement from different people. Assistance from the Education Institution with which we are associated was mobilised in order to provide the essential theoretical input and to provide some education and training regarding the principles of care planning, which addressed one of the identified restraining forces. Care plans from other areas were also scrutinised (with permission) in the spirit of sharing best practice (derived from the benchmarking criteria), in order to gain new ideas that might help to inform our work. Once the new documentation had been developed, it was piloted to test its effectiveness. A patient survey (Graves 2002) was conducted to gather their views about the newly- developed documentation. The final version of the new care plan and other documentation was produced and introduced to all staff with some training sessions to support this new initiative. The use of the new documentation will be monitored and its effectiveness will be regularly evaluated. Conclusion and Recommendations Practice development is about continually improving our practice, which should be evidence- based. We should increasingly work in partnership with patients/ clients and their informal carers. Practice development has implications for change. With any change there are both driving and restraining forces, and those affected by change may be resistant towards it. Change therefore, needs to be managed. We can draw on change theory to inform the management of change. A learning outcome from the change initiative described above is that people are more likely to be responsive to change if they are involved in all stage of the change process. Other important aspects of the change process were the sharing of knowledge, the integration of theory and practice with input from academics and working in partnership with those ultimately affected by the change initiative i.e. the patients/ clients and their informal carers. References Banning M. Conceptions of evidence, evidence-based medicine, evidence-based practice and their use in nursing: independent nurse prescribers views. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 14(4) 2005. 411-417 Bassett and McSherry Practice Development in the Clinical Setting: A Guide to ImplementationNelson Thornes 2002. p. 11-12. Blackie C and Appleby F. Community Health Care Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. 1998 p. Bournemouth University. Institute of health and Community Studies. Practice Development Unit: What is a PDU? http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/ihcs/pduwhat.html. Accessed: 20th January 2007. Brooks, I. Brown, R. The role of ritualistic ceremonial in removing barriers between subcultures in the National Health Service. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 38 (4) 2002 341 – 352. Chin H. Practice Development: A Framework Toward Modernizing Health Care in the United States and the United Kingdom and a Means Toward Building International Communities of Learning and Practice. Home Health Care Management Practice, 2003 15 (5), 423-428 Commission on Nursing. Report of the Commoission on Nursing: A blueprint fro the future. Stationery Office. 1998. p. 8. Gough P. Churchill Livingstones Guide to Professional Healthcare. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2002. p. 36. Graves P. Quantifying Quality in Primary Care. Radcliffe Publishing. 2002. p. 246 Irish Health Services Accreditation Board. Mission, Vision and Values. http://www.ihsab.ie/mission_statement.html Accessed: 20th January 2007. Lawton S Cantrell J and Harris J. District Nursing.: Providing Care in a Supportive Context. Elsevire Health Sciences. 2000. p. 109. Lupton D. The Imperative of Health: public health and the regulated body. Sage Publications. 1995. p. 111. Martin and Whiteley. Leading Change in Health and Social Care. Routledge. 2003. pp. 160-162 NHS Modernisation Agency. Essence of Care: patient- focused benchmarks for clinical governance. 2001. Department of Health. Parsley K and Corrigan P. Quality Improvement in Health Care: putting evidence into practice Nelson Thornes. 1999. p. 2. Pickering S and Thompson J. Clinical Governance and Best Value: Meeting the Modernisation Agenda. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2003. p. 164. Richmond J and Whiteley R Nursing Documentation: writing what we do. Ausmed publications. 1999. pp. 2,3. Taylor C. Lillis C and LeMone P Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Nursing Care Stanley Thornes and Lippincott 1997 Titchen A and Higgs J. Professional Practice in Health, Education and the Creative Arts. Blackwell publishing. 2001. pp. 186-7 UK Healthcare. Magnet Status Fact sheet. http://ukhealthcare.uky.edu/publications/healthfocus/fact_sheets/magnetfst.htm . Accessed: 20th January 2007. Wheeler N and Grice D. Management in Health Care. Nelson Thornes. 2000. p. 136.

An Analysis Of The Culture Of An Organization

An Analysis Of The Culture Of An Organization Southwest Airlines is the pioneer in low-fare air transportation and one of the leading American airlines. In 2010, with a number of 106.2 million passengers carried, it was the USAs largest domestic carrier in terms of boarded passengers (Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation and IATA, 2011). Southwest was incorporated in Texas in 1967 and service started four years later, in 1971. Originally, the airline was only serving Texan cities but the company has progressively enlarged its service to other American states and cities. Until 2011, no international destinations were comprised in the airlines routes even though codeshare agreements permitted it to offer international flights operated by other airlines as stated by the Southwest media website, 2011. The acquisition of AirTran Airways by Southwest Airlines will allow it to serve some international destinations in Mexico and the Carribean. In 2010, the staff represented 34,901 persons and the company owned 548 aircrafts (Datamonitor, 2011). A PESTEL analysis of the global airline industry by Xerfi Global (2011) will allow us to understand that the macro environment stays exceptionally challenging. Here is a brief summary of the analysis: Positive effect Negative effect Politics Public support actions Political instabilities, conflicts, terrorism Economy Increasing demand for air transportation Oil and fuel price variations Sensitivity of demand to prices and economic variations Social Expanding world population Economic and social globalisation Seasonal demand Technology Aircraft efficiency enhancements Creation of new aircraft concepts make air travel even more attractive (e-commerce) Chronic delays in aircraft delivery Environment Unfavorable weather conditions Natural disasters, pandemics Environmental law to reduce emissions (carbon offsetting) Legislation International agreements in favour of liberalisation and globalisation Severe security and safety regulation High levels of taxation A market analysis of the global airline industry (Xerfi Global, 2011) reports several facts. First of all, politics have a high impact on the airline industry. It can be seriously influenced when it comes to growing taxes, stringent security norms or legislation defending the environment. All these constraints impact the finances and operations of airlines. However, governments offer regular financial support to assist airlines because of their significance for trade and tourism. Moreover, economic and social globalisation leads to market deregulation and thus enable the good development of the industry. The economic factor has also a high impact on flag-carriers. For example, in 2009 during the global economic crisis, all the industry was affected as stated by Xerfi Global, 2011. Consumers were less likely to travel because of the variations of diverse economic factors like employment as well as income level or more generally global trade. As a result, the air traffic was highly and rapidly contracted. Regardless of these issues, demand for air transportation is increasing due to the growing demand in emerging markets (Aviation Industry, 2009). The constant technical progress of the airline industry by the development of plane with high capacity, asking a reduced maintenance and a reasonable consumption made accessible this type of transportation to several hundreds of million persons. Nowadays, it is cheaper to travel by plane thanks to the technologys fast improvements and to a more active competition. The costs are significantly reduced and thus allow more people to use air transportation. After using a PESTEL analysis, it is now necessary to get a closer look on the internal factors. Here is a SWOT analysis of the Southwest airline retrieved from a report made by Datamonitor (2011): Strengths Weaknesses Firm operating strategy Robust fleet operations Increasing cash flow from operations Class action lawsuits Dependent on single aircraft and engine suppliers Opportunities Threats Poised to benefit from the acquisition of AirTran Holdings Positive outlook for tourism industry in the US Growing US airline industry Intense competition Increasing fuel prices could strain margins Stringent government regulation could increase operating costs Table : SWOT Analysis of SWA Datamonitor 2011 Focus of the report : practice Companies, following the example of the individuals, possess their own culture. Generally, in a company managed by its owner, the culture corresponds appreciably to the personal culture of this one. As reported by Kotter and Heskett (1992), company with a strong corporate culture is due to the founder or the early leader and his capacity to articulate ideas as a vision or business strategy. In big organizations, several cultures mix. Sometimes they can be incompatible because of the diverse personalities who compose the management team. Besides, the experiences and the society can also influence (in a positive or negative way) the corporate culture, sometimes even without the managers knowing. In every type of organization, a deficient culture risks to have a demotivating effect on the staff and to be source of dissatisfaction to the clientele two factors which have a significant incidence on the profitability of the company. Organizational culture is defined as: a pattern of basic assumptions that a group has invented, discovered or developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and that have worked well enough to be considered valid,and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein, 1990, p. 111). Southwest Airlines is a perfect example in terms of corporate culture. Over the years, the company has imposed a strong and original culture that has always made the airline even stronger. Today, SouthWest Airlines confirms its corporate culture centred on a relation privileged with its employees and its clientele by diversifying the means to communicate with this one through various social networks in which the company answers present and invites its employees to participate. This report will focus on the fact that Southwest airline focuses its attention on its employees. For example, in 2001, Southwest Airlines had already thwarted the effects of the recession by putting in the foreground its employees. The company chooses to draw from its financial reserves and to emphasize the advertising to consolidate its positioning as a low cost airline in order to avoid the lay-off. The creed of SWA is perfectly organized: Treat your employees well, theyll treat your customers well, the cust omers will become loyal, and your company will prosper. (James Parker, former CEO of SWA) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW THEORY Theorical framework used and reasons it was choosen Schein (1992) emphasizes the importance to realize a cultural analysis in order to succeed an effective management which can transcend the national and ethical frontiers. He asserts that this analysis represents a key factor of success for the leaders, who are the persons in charge for creating, administering, changing and even destroying an organizational culture. Schein (1992) has defined three basic levels of a culture which help to realise such an analysis: The first level establishes the surface of a culture and consists of artefacts, which are defines as visible organizational structure and process (Schein, 1992). Artefacts are explicit either material demonstrations of a culture, such as the physical structure of a company (the architecture, the size of offices, presence or absence of barriers between offices, etc.), the dress code of employees, the visible behaviour of the persons, the rites or ceremonies, published lists on the values and the philosophy of the company, etc. The meanings of these artefacts are only known by people from inside the company, and are thus difficult to understand for an external observer. In the same spirit, Trompenaars declares that stereotypes are formed in this superficial level:  « prejudices mostly start on this symbolic and observable level [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] each opinion we voice regarding explicit culture usually says more about where we come from than about the community we are judging  » (19 98). The second level of a culture is constituted by explicit values espoused values as stated by Argyris and Shon (1978) (as cited in Schein,1992). It includes values and faiths put together by a group of persons. However, these can be simply affirmations because there are uttered values which are not put into practice in all the situations confronted by an individual. For example, the managers of a company can affirm that one of their main values is the environmental protection, while in reality, the company pollutes in secret the environment. In that case, the assertion of a value does not condition the behaviour of the managers. Trompenaars explains that this type of behaviour is a result of a contradiction between the standards and the values: while the norms, consciously or subconsciously give us a feeling of this is how i aspire or desire to behave (Trompenaars, 1997). Nevertheless, Schein has identified a third level of culture, in which the explicit values become internal values, which will determine the behaviour of the group which shares them. This third level is the formation of basic underlying assumptions. The process by which a shared value is transformed in one basic assumption is introduced by the leader / founder of a certain group. For example the leader of a group can propose a solution to a common issue (based on one of its values or even on a faith). Then, the validity of this proposal will be questioned and debated between the members of the group. The proposal will thus be tested several times in order to evaluate it. Finally, if this solution works in a repetitive way, the value which is behind will be approved as correct and by consequent it will be considered as an absolute value and unconsciously it will be assimilated as shared basic assumption , anchored in all the members of the groups minds. These shared basic assumption constitute one of the foundations of the meanings which the group shares in an implicit way and which give a context of interpretation common to the group. The model of Schein goes farther than the model of Hofstede which presents the culture (including the organizational culture) as an onion onion diagram , with the values in the centre, encircled by layers of demonstrations or practices of the culture, defines as the symbols, the heroes or the rites. According to the model of Schein, the symbols, the heroes and the rites are all categorised as artefacts, and the basic assumptions are at the heart of the model, with the explicit values between both levels. Scheins organizational theory will be the most useful framework to study this particular practice within Southwest Airlines. The company is well-known for its strong corporate culture. Since its creation, the company has shown undeniable success even during the economic crisis. Beside this important fact, SouthWest Airline is also good for its employees and they do not hesitate to say it: the company has been ranked second best place to work for in America in 2011 (Glassdoor, 2011). Therefore, it would be interesting to understand how such a successful company managed to go through the years without losing any of its qualities. That is why a deep analysis of the companys corporate culture will be done using the Schein model. CHAPTER 3 ANALYZE OF THE PRACTICE OF SWA Applying the chosen theory This part of the report will be dedicated to an analysis of the employee-focused practice of Southwest Airlines through the Schein model. Schein organizational culture level is obvious in the case of Southwest Airlines. At the first level, culture is visible to those who are inside the organization and outsiders through organizational artifacts. It is the most visible and accessible level of culture. These are employeess behavior, logos of the company or slogans such as Just Plane Smart (Southwest Airlines, 1992). Kelleher states: We were always very colorful and somewhat promotive of a sense of humor. We have always had that approach, in an informal way (Organizational Dynamics, 1992). Each person who travels using a Southwest flight will pay attention to the attitude of the Southwest employees. They characteristically are the friendliest, most willing to help employees of any airline. Southwest chooses its employees based on their social skills and their ability to be sociable and outgoing. Personnel at Southwest must be happy to work and communicate with customers. That is why Southwest gives its employees the freedom to use any talents or skills they may have in order to entertain and serve the customers as long as they make them happy. This is one of the factor that contribute to Southwests excellent customer service. There are many examples that prove the fact that employees can act freely. For instance, flight attendants might sing or tell jokes during the flight. In 2009, David Holmes became the most famous rapping flight attendant and his performance became viral on YouTube (Southwests Rapping Flight Attendant on Freestyle and Flying to Vegas, 2009). This is one of the numerous example that demonstrate that on Southwests flights, flight attendants do not only serve customers by demonstrating seatbelts and serving food and drinks. The middle level of a culture includes values and norms put together by a group of persons. Southwest has two main values: humour and altruism. They are defined by different beliefs of the company such as the importance of focusing on the situation, issue or behaviour rather than focusing on the person. It means that a solution must be found instead of judging others. Also, employees need to be creative and cooperative. It is really important to maintain the self-confidence and self-esteem of others. That is why employees have to respect all the different personalities in order to create one big family. The company also insists on the importance of constructive relationships between employees. The success of the company depends on a good teamwork. Moreover, people in Southwest have the duty to make improvements in order to make things better within the company. A LUV attitude is always required and everyone should behave in consideration of the companys spirit but also in considerati on of others. The Golden Rule is Treat others as you want to be treated (The Power of LUV: An Inside Peek at the Innovative Culture Committee of Southwest Airlines, 2008). Here are the values as stated by Kelleher (as cited by Organizational Dynamics, 1992): VALUE 1: Work should be funit can be playenjoy it. VALUE 2: Work is importantdont spoil it with seriousness. VALUE 3: People are importanteach one makes a difference. A perfect example of Southwests corporate story that helps employees understand how they should behave in a particular situation could be the early years of the company. The first nine years was the toughest part of the companys life. As stated by Lusk on the companys blog, tradition here at Southwest Airlines that anyone hired during our first year of operation is considered an Original Employee. In 2010, eleven of the Original Employees are still working at Southwest. Seven of them were on Southwests first flight as flight attendants; one works as a manager in flight operations, another is a member of Southwests ground crew, one is a dispatcher, and the last one works in maintenance (Lauer, 2010). On special occasions, Southwest invites the Originals to come in to Southwests headquarters and talk about their experiences to current employees. Lauer (2010) indicates that the Originals tell current employees about the struggles of a new airline working hard to develop. They also explain how the company managed to advertise without any money in the beginning. The flights attendants had to be creative because the company had no money to spend on adverti sing. They would go down to the streets of Dallas, Houston and San Antonio wearing their uniform and distribute flight schedules for the airlines four flights to everyone they met. This type of storytelling preserves the history of Southwest, while also connecting the companys early corporate culture to the lives of the actual and future employees. Furthermore, corporate rituals are recurring sequence of activities that express significant values of the company. There is one ritual for what Southwest is famous for: its Halloween party. Every year Southwest Airlines hosts a enormous Halloween bash at its Dallas headquarters (Southwest LUVs Halloween, 2012). Herb Kelleher passed on his love of Halloween and made it become a tradition at Southwest Airlines. Once, the former CEO showed up dressed as Elvis driving a Harley-Davidson (Lauer, 2010). Once Kelleher retired in 2004, his successor Gary Kelly proved his undeniable belief in and support of preserving the unique corporate culture of Southwest by dressing up on Halloween as Captain Jack Sparrow from the film The Pirates of the Caribbean. And he has been celebrating Halloween every year since then. Halloween party shows that having fun in the working environment is an essential value of the company. The third and deepest level is called basic assumption level. At this stage, the transmission of culture is done unconsciously or under the surface. As stated by Hill and Jones (2001), basic assumptions help to formulate organizational values and these become shared assumptions that guide how employees interact with each other. Overtime and through socialization, the values are conveyed to and taught to new members of the organization as the right way to do things. Southwest employs two tools to socialize its values to new employees. They are both parts of the culture committee maintained by the company (Rebuilding the Social Contract at Work: Lessons from Leading Cases, 1999). The first tool used by Southwest is the New City committee. The purpose of this committee is to go to each new city Southwest serves so as to teach new employees about the values of the company. It facilitates the adaptation of the new employees to Southwests culture, so they can learn the Southwests ways of doing things. The second tool is called Back to Basics team. This committee sponsored an essay competition to describe what makes Southwest successful. The team chose a series of essays that were integrated into a book with an accompanying video that is given to every new employee. One important thing is that people of these comm ittees are all volunteers working on their own time. CONCLUSION This report allowed to understand the impact of a strong corporate culture and its relation to company performance. The case of Southwest airlines shows a company with a solid commitment to its employees. The company offers the same respect to its employees as it does to its customers. The mission of Southwest airlines is unique in the fact that it recognizes the importance of its employees in the companys strategy, which puts the emphasis on the great customer service and the operational efficiency. In return, the employees show undeniable respect, loyalty and trust. The exact same qualities that Southwest airlines demonstrates. Employees of the Southwest are known for their loyalty, the dedication, the attitude and the innovation. Employees are the factor of distinction between Southwest airlines and the rest of the airline industry. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hill, C.W.L and Jones, G.R. (2001) Strategic Management: An Integrated Approach. Boston MA, Houghton Mifflin Kotter, J. Heskett, J. (1992). Corporate Culture and Performance. New York, NY: the Free press. Lauer, C. (2010). Southwest Airlines. Greenwood Schein E. (1992). Organizational Culture and Leadership. (2nd ed) .Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Trompenaars, F. Hampden-Turner, C. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business (Second Edition) London: McGraw-Hill.